Counterfactual thinking focus on how the past might have been, or the
present could be, different. These thoughts are usually triggered by negative
events that block one’s goals and desires. Counterfactual thoughts have a
variety of effects on emotions, beliefs, and behavior, with regret being the
most common resulting emotion.
Counterfactual
means, literally, contrary to the facts. Sometimes counterfactuals revolve
around how the present could be different (“I could be at the movies instead of
studying for this exam”). More frequent, however, are counterfactual thoughts
of what might have been, of what could have happened had some detail, or
action, or outcome been different in the past. Whenever we say “if only” or
“almost,” or use words like “could,” “would,” or “should,” we may be expressing
a counterfactual thought (If only I were taller; I almost won that hand, etc.).
Sometimes counterfactuals are used as an argument in a speech (“If Kennedy had
decided to attack Cuba during the Cuban missile crisis, it would have ended in
nuclear war”) or to speculate or evaluate (“What if the 9/11 terrorists had
been stopped by security guards at the airport?”).
Imagine working
in your office while the sun is shining outside. Thinking about what you could
be doing instead of working is an example of “counterfactual thinking”.
New research in
primates has shown for the first time that counterfactual thinking is causally
related to a frontal part of the brain, called the anterior cingulate cortex.
And scientists have proven that the process can be changed by targeting neurons
(nerve cells) in this region using low-intensity ultrasound.
The study was led by Dr Elsa Fouragnan, Lecturer in Psychology at the
University and published in Nature Neuroscience.
Counterfactual
thinking is an important cognitive process by which humans and animals make
decisions – not only based on what they are currently experiencing, but by
comparing their present experience with potential alternatives. In typical
circumstances, should these alternatives become available in the near future,
one would adaptively switch to them. For example, if the sun was shining while
working, one would go out and enjoy the sun as soon as work is done.
If neurons in
the anterior cingulate cortex are not working properly, then it would not be
possible to switch to alternative options, even when these alternatives are the
best available. Scientists believe that this is what happens in some
psychiatric conditions where people are stuck in dysfunctional habits.
The study showed
for the first time how low-intensity ultrasonic waves can be used to
non-invasively, and with pinpoint accuracy, modulate normal brain function –
affecting counterfactual thinking and the ability to switch to better
alternatives.
The research,
conducted in macaque monkeys, follows previous work highlighting the safeness
of the non-invasive ultrasound technique and its effect on the brain.
In the study,
the macaques were tasked with finding a treat from a variety of options. They
quickly learned which one was best, but the ‘best’ option was not always
available to choose. Thus, they had to keep it in mind for when it became
available again.
After showing
that the cingulate cortex was linked with remembering which option was best,
researchers used low intensity ultrasound to modulate the activity in this
brain region and see its effect on behaviours. When the neurons were
stimulated, their counterfactual thinking was impaired.
Dr Fouragnan
explained why the findings were so significant and what it could mean for
future treatment:
“This
is a really exciting study for two main reasons – firstly because we discovered
that the cingulate cortex is crucial to help switch to better alternatives, and
secondly because low-intensity ultrasound can be used to reversibly change
brain activity in very precise part of the brain,” she said.
Ultrasound is
well known as an imaging tool – in pregnancy, for example – but it can also be
used as a therapeutic method, particularly for safely modulating brain
activity. This is possible because the mechanical vibrations caused by
ultrasonic waves can cause the generation or suppression of electrical signals
in the brain, which in turn can be used to restore normal brain function.
Dr Fouragnan
continued:
“Ultrasound
neurostimulation is an early-stage, non-invasive therapeutic technology that
has the potential to improve the lives of millions of patients with mental
health conditions by stimulating brain tissues with millimetre accuracy.
Presently, neuromodulation techniques do exist for humans, to help people with
conditions such as major depression or Parkinson’s. But there are no techniques
that have this level of accuracy while remaining non-invasive.
“It’s still early stages and the next stage is for further trials to be conducted in humans, but the potential is very exciting.”
“It’s still early stages and the next stage is for further trials to be conducted in humans, but the potential is very exciting.”
Journal article: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-019-0375-6
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